Organs of government were established, tried, modified, or replaced, and new social distinctions were brought into being. The four centuries in question, however, may be treated as a single historical period by virtue of dynastic continuity, for, apart from the short interval of 9–25, imperial authority was unquestionably vested in successive members of the same family, although the period was one of considerable changes in imperial, political, and social development. The period before Wang Mang’s usurpation-when the capital was in the western Chinese city of Chang’an (now Xi’an, Shaanxi province)-is called the Qian (Former), or Xi (Western) Han (206 bce–25 ce), and the period after Wang Mang-when the capital was moved eastward to Luoyang (in present-day Henan province-is named the Hou (Later), or Dong (Eastern), Han (25–220 ce). Some scholars divide the Han into two sections. Thirteen of his descendants maintained the dynastic succession until 220, when the rule of a single empire was replaced by that of three separate kingdoms. In 25 ce the authority of the Han dynasty was reaffirmed by Liu Xiu (posthumous name Guangwudi), who reigned as Han emperor until 57. Eleven members of the Liu family followed in the Gaozu emperor’s place until 6 ce (a 12th briefly occupied the throne as a puppet). So successful was that policy that the Han lasted longer than any other Chinese empire, reigning-with a short interruption when Wang Mang temporarily usurped the throne and established the Xin dynasty (9–25 ce)-for more than 400 years. Victoria and Albert Museum, London, Dr T.
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